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Reformed Theology and Missions: Reviving the Basics* A Paper Delivered at the WRF Conference on Global Theological Education Jakarta, Indonesia
March 18, 2009 by
Matthew Ebenezer, Ph. D. * The version of Dr. Ebenezer's paper posted here omits the footnotes. Anyone desiring the full version, including all of the footnotes should make this request of Dr. Samuel Logan - samueltlogan@aol.com. The full version will be provided free of charge to any member of the WRF. Introduction: The purpose of this paper is to restate the relationship between Reformed Theology and Missions. This attempt will make a brief historical survey of missions, examine some relevant Reformed teachings, and reaffirm some fundamental ideas of mission. There will be references to Calvin and an attempt to reconcile the salient features of Reformed theology and missionary practice.
In approaching this subject one needs to be aware of some contemporary issues in mission.
First, the issue of cooperation between the ‘sending’ churches and the national churches. In recent years missions have developed into a global effort rather than one that is focussed on a few ‘sending’ countries. This was particularly seen recently in the World Evangelical Fellowship Missions Commission Iguassu (Brazil) Missiological Consultation in 1999. Furthermore, contemporary missions are a cooperative effort rather than one-sided.
Another matter of importance is the question whether missions should be holistic or only evangelistic, put differently, in mission fields of the majority world that have issues such as poverty, illiteracy, economic backwardness, etc., what is the relevance of traditional ideas of mission?
Still another question is how the gospel ought to be communicated in religiously sensitive countries and communities: are traditional or biblical ideas of missions outmoded and is there a need to reframe new approaches? An associated issue also is: in a largely post-denominational age, are we justified in promoting ‘Reformed’ missions or should we seek to be ecumenically involved in the task of missions?
A brief background survey of recent mission developments is necessary to understand some of the influences that have led to these contemporary issues in missions.
Historically, one observes that early expressions of ecumenism were for the primary purpose of mission and evangelism. The watchword of evangelical missionary initiatives that culminated in the World Missionary Conference, Edinburgh (1910) was the ‘evangelization of the world in this generation.’ The church had a vision to unite in order to evangelize the world. Edinburgh 1910 became the landmark of the beginnings of the modern ecumenical movement; the Faith and Order Movement (1927) and the Life and Work Movement (1925) that developed from Edinburgh eventually merged to form the World Council of Churches in 1948. The original missionary vision of Edinburgh 1910 was kept alive in the early years by the formation of the International Missionary Council (IMC) in 1921. Unfortunately, the IMC Conference in Jerusalem (1928) was marked by confusion when there was no unanimous understanding of what the Christian message was. This came about as there were diverse views presented. One of the Jerusalem participants, William Ernest Hocking, published Re-thinking Missions, in 1932, expressing ideas that challenged the existing, traditional modes of doing mission. The IMC Conference in Madras (Tambaram), 1938, checked the influences of both Hocking’s book and the syncretistic tendencies of Jerusalem (1921), largely because of the efforts of Hendrick Kraemer whose views at Madras were subsequently published. Hocking’s book led to a rise of a liberal trend in the understanding of missions and the task of the church which was primarily humanitarian assistance rather than evangelism. These ideas were contested by the evangelicals who, especially since the mid-sixties, have engaged in reclaiming the missionary task of the church through various global conferences and consultations. In more recent years Donald McGavran pioneered the Church Growth Movement that seeks to view evangelism as the primary task of mission.
This paper will first look at the theological foundations, where common ideas of Reformed theology are discussed; next is a section on Reformed doctrines connected with mission; those teachings that are important and yet have been eclipsed by the more commonly emphasized doctrines; this is followed by a historical overview, this section will survey briefly the work of three selected Reformed missionaries; the next section deals with contemporary global challenges; and the final part addresses the continuing task of Reformed missions.
Theological Foundations
What are the theological foundations of Reformed theology? Perhaps the sovereignty of God is one doctrine that is normally understood as encapsulating the chief element of Reformed theology along with its natural corollaries of election and predestination. In the matter of soteriology, the Reformed camp essentially finds a difference between monergism and synergism in which these ideas reflect God-centeredness and man-centeredness, respectively. In any discussion of missions these ideas play an important role. On them depend the understanding of how God works in the salvation of man; whether this salvation depends upon man’s effort for its surety; and the greater questions of whether man is elect from eternity on the basis of God’s love, without any merit on man’s part, or, whether man is chosen because of God’s foreknowledge of his repentance and good works.
The richness of Reformed theology essentially cannot be properly summarized under a few dominant heads. Furthermore, the idea of semper Reformata or ‘always reforming’ seems to encourage an emergence of several different types of theologies – conservative and liberal - that defined reformed theology from various perspectives. For instance, Covenant Theology, which began to develop in the mid to late sixteenth century, served to provide, among other things, a rationale for infant baptism from a Reformed perspective. Similarly, in the early to mid- seventeenth century, Congregationalism, which also traces its roots to the Reformed faith, developed a congregational structure of church government. Another development in the early 20th century was Abraham Kuiper’s idea of sphere-sovereignty. Despite the presence of a variety of evangelical Reformed denominations, all of which believe in the trustworthiness of the Scriptures, we need to delineate those beliefs that generally represent Reformed theology. What are they?
The Sovereignty of God
The emphasis on the sovereignty of God marks the departure point between Reformed Theology and all other theological systems. Many theological issues that are battled out usually find their roots in the question of God’s sovereignty. This is because of the tendency to give place to man’s activity and initiative both in securing his salvation and also in retaining it. This inherent subjectivity of those who do not give God’s sovereignty its rightful place, leads to a plethora of problems that range from uncertainty of one’s salvation to dependence on human resources to maintain salvation. In some cases, the inability to accept the sovereignty of God, especially in relation to the doctrine of election, has even led to universalism.
There is no place where this doctrine makes a significant difference as in the matter of salvation. In explaining this crucial doctrine with reference toof soteriology, Calvin, following Augustine, emphasizes this doctrine and makes it the foundation of his theology. As McNeill says, “Calvin goes beyond Augustine in his explicit assertion of double predestination, in which the reprobation of those not elected is a specific determination of God’s inscrutable will.” The doctrine of the sovereignty of God ultimately separates the Reformed family from those who allow for the role of man in his own salvation.
TULIP
The ‘Five Points of Calvinism,’ as they are commonly called, focus primarily on the soteriological aspects of the Reformed faith. TULIP (T=Total Depravity; U=Unconditional Election; L=Limited Atonement; I=Irresistible Grace; and P=Perseverance of the Saints) is the familiar acronym that summarizes the decisions of the Synod of Dort (1619) which responded to the Five Arminian Articles (1610) put forward by the followers of James (Jacobus) Arminius (1559-1609). TULIP is not a complete summary of Calvinism although many people do assume it to be so. Nevertheless, the five points are important because of their significance from a soteriological perspective. In their response to Arminianism, the Synod of Dort touched on several major doctrines of the Reformed faith, especially the sovereignty of God, election, predestination etc. in the formulation of its position.
Taking the first head of doctrine, ‘Of Divine Predestination,’ as an example, one is introduced to a wide variety of fundamental doctrines of the Reformed faith. These are: The sinfulness of man (Art I); the gospel (Art II); the need to preach the Good News (Art III); punishment for those who refuse the gospel and eternal life for those who believe in Christ (Art IV); The free offer of the gospel (Art V); Election and Reprobation (Art VI); Limited Atonement, effectual call, faith, justification, sanctification, preservation of the saints, predestination (Art VII); one plan of salvation in the Old and New Testaments (Art VIII); Election not founded on foreseen faith, ‘but men are chosen to faith and to the obedience of faith, holiness, etc.’ (Art IX); God purposes in eternity to save whom He wills (Art X); because God is unchangeable His purposes also do not change, therefore the elect cannot ‘be cast away, nor their number diminished’ (Art XII); election is confirmed by godly living in gratefulness for God’s kindness, it is to be taught that only some are elected, and that God is not the author of sin because of the doctrine of reprobation (Arts.XIII-XV); the doctrine of election should be an encouragement to those striving to live godly lives and a warning to those who refuse to walk in holiness (Art XVI); the covenant of grace ensures that children of believers are holy (Art XVII); and, for those who oppose election and reprobation three texts (Rom 9:20; Matt 20:15; Rom 11:33-36) are cited to show God’s wisdom and sovereignty (Art XVIII).
Election and predestination play an important role in Reformed theology. At times these doctrines are stressed to an extreme limit that leaves out other important teachings of Calvin. It should be noted that Calvin himself was careful to present a balanced view of election and its relationship to evangelism. Calvin, in discussing election, refers to the continual preaching of God’s free call. Moreover, in his reply to Cardinal Sadolet’s letter, Calvin refers to the Cardinal’s suggestion that men ought to continue in the religion handed down to them by their forefathers and says that if this were true then Jews, Turks, and Saracens would escape the judgment of God. The implication is that men are held accountable by their response to the gospel – a response to the Word of God. Commenting on Romans 10:17, “Faith comes by hearing . . .” he writes, “And this is a remarkable passage with regard to the efficacy of preaching; for he testifies, that by it faith is produced.” Scholars have pointed out that Calvin, like other Reformers, believed that the apostles had preached the gospel throughout the whole world, however, reading Calvin one always senses the tension between preaching that has been done and that still needs to be done.
Reformed Doctrines Connected with Missions
It can be argued that all Reformed doctrines are important, but for this paper a few have been selected to highlight their significance in mission. These doctrines have often not received proper attention because of a general preoccupation with certain particular Reformed teachings. They have received minimal consideration in comparison to those that are concerned with soteriology. Fortunately, there is an ongoing dialogue with Calvin’s teaching that is bringing fresh insights into his vast theological framework. From the perspective of Reformed missions, however, it is important to look at some doctrines that need to be emphasized and applied to mission in the Reformed churches today.
The Revelation of God in Jesus Christ
General and Special Revelation. Article II of the Belgic Confession refers to both general and special revelation in dealing with how God makes Himself known to man. It reads: “We know him by two means: first, by the creation, preservation, and government of the universe . . .” and then referring to Rom 1:20 concludes by saying, “All which things are sufficient to convince men, and leave them without excuse.” The Confession then states, “Secondly, he makes himself more clearly and fully known to us by his holy and divine Word; that is to say, as far as is necessary for us to know in this life, to his glory and our salvation.” General revelation provides a natural point of contact in mission proclamation. This, together with the preaching on the Fall of man and his sinfulness, naturally leads to preaching the gospel. Jesus Christ must be central in gospel preaching.
Commenting on the centrality of Christ in Calvin’s Institutes McNeill writes, “It is important to realize that the focal point of the Institutes is not found in God’s sovereignty, or in predestination, or in insistence on obedience to God’s Word itself, apart from constant reference to Jesus Christ, whom the written Word makes known.” There is a need to rediscover the importance of a biblical Christology that is relevant both for the preaching of the gospel as well as for the edification of the Church. Paul writes to the Corinthians, “For I resolved to know nothing while I was with you except Jesus Christ and him crucified.” (I Cor 2:2) In its missionary task the church needs to reemphasize the centrality and significance of Jesus Christ. As Paul says in I Corinthians 3, it is not Apollos or he that was important; it is the foundation that he (Paul) laid: Jesus Christ. In the missiological context the question also needs to be asked: what type of Christ is presented in the gospel message?
In the Indian Church there has sometimes been a reaction to missionary preaching of the gospel in the past. This has been partly due to the association of Christianity with the colonial powers, but also because of the many missions that came to evangelize India. Indian thinkers tried their best to dissociate Christ from any Western trappings they suspected. Some educated Hindus were rather critical about the fragmented missionary ecclesia, but greatly attracted to the life of Christ. P. C. Mazoomdar, says, “Christ has reached us, the missionaries have missed us.” Another, the great Hindu religious thinker, Keshab Chander Sen describes Christ as an “Asiatic,” and then goes on to speak of Him as, “My Christ, my sweet Christ, the brightest jewel of my heart, the necklace of my soul . . . . Though often defiled and persecuted by the world, I have found sweetness and joy unutterable in my master Jesus.”
What makes a person so attracted to Jesus - so much that he even desired that all of India should embrace Christ? Is it possible to present the message of the gospel – the death of Jesus Christ for men separated from God through sin – in such a manner that Christ is seen and heard as the Scriptures speak of Him? There is a need to recover a biblical presentation of the gospel. The great truths of the Reformation – of the sufficiency of Christ for the salvation of man - need to be revived so that the Church will once more witness revival and renewal as has happened in its past.
The Scriptures
In order to believe in and work together in mission evangelicals should not compromise on the truth of Scripture. The Reformed faith, which is essentially evangelical in character, needs to be grounded in the teaching of Scripture. The evangelical Reformed tradition has always emphasized the importance of Scripture as the revealed Word of God. In the continuing discussions on the trustworthiness of Scripture it is important that the honesty, thoroughness, and conviction of Calvin and other Reformed theologians be taken seriously. Professor John Murray, in discussing Calvin’s doctrine of Scripture, argues persuasively for biblical inerrancy taking the difficulties that Calvin addressed with regard to several passages which seem to contain scribal errors. He then goes on to show that Calvin’s concern in facing these questions were related to his high view of Scripture and also to his pursuit for veracity. There should be a conviction that the Bible is the Word of God. Any compromise on this issue will certainly result in a compromise of the gospel message.
The Church Calvin’s teaching on the Church must be viewed against his immediate context of religious persecution. To those Christians who worshipped secretly, like the Huguenots in France, Calvin’s idea of the marks of the church were probably most meaningful. He writes: “Wherever we see the Word of God purely preached and heard, and the sacraments administered according to Christ’s institution, there, it is not to be doubted, a church of God exists [cf. Ephesians 2:20]. For his promise cannot fail: ‘Wherever two or three are gathered in my name, there I am in the midst of them’ [Matthew 18:20].” The simplicity of this statement has immense relevance for churches anywhere in the world: Christian churches need not always have stained glass windows, organs, and pews to be churches. Calvin’s biblically grounded statement takes away the attention that is sometimes falsely attached to outward elements such as the size, architecture, the composition of the members, etc., and focuses rather on the absolute and essential character of the church. Moreover, the current context of religious persecution makes it imperative that churches in places where rapid growth is marked by opposition to the faith holds to these marks, as a confirmation of their genuineness.
Another significant idea of Calvin that needs to be recovered is that of the Church as Mother. Calvin follows Cyprian in giving this role to the Church. He writes that the function of the church as mother is to bring in believers; to nourish them when they are young in the faith by her “help and ministry” and guide them “by her motherly care until they mature and at last reach the goal of faith.” He concludes by saying, “. . . for those to whom he [God] is Father the church may also be Mother.” Elsewhere Calvin talks about knowing this “mother;” and the need for the mother to give birth to believers; to “nourish us at her breast;” watch over us until we depart from this life; keep us despite our weaknesses; and echoing Cyprian says, “Furthermore, away from her bosom one cannot hope for any forgiveness of sins or any salvation.”
The concept of the Church as Mother is helpful for churches to recognize their responsibilities in the task of evangelism. This idea may be disturbing to some, but it is a doctrine worth emphasizing in the missiological context today. With the influx of para-church organizations that are helping the Church in the task of missions, the Church needs to be restored to its rightful place as the ‘Mother’ of believers. The church should not be relegated to a secondary place in the task of missions. It is the God-ordained instrument that should originate missions, nurture new believers, and send out mature believers to fulfill the Great Commission.
This idea of the Church of Christ as Mother is more relevant to the mission of the church than the idea of her as the Bride of Christ, which is eschatological in character. We need to, following Cyprian and Calvin, re-emphasize this concept in order to view the role of the Church in mission more constructively. The recovery of this basic understanding of the Church should inspire and motivate the Church to re-discover its calling to preach the gospel, which is one of its fundamental callings. A church that does not preach the gospel or engage in the task of proclamation of the gospel is a Church that falls below its biblical expectations.
The Holy Spirit Calvin’s teaching of the Holy Spirit is important from a missiological perspective. To Calvin, the principal work of the Spirit is faith; and the object of faith is Christ. He sees the Holy Spirit’s work in conjunction with Christ. Commenting on Luke 4:18 he says, “We see that he [Christ] was anointed by the Spirit to be herald and witness of the Father’s grace . . . . he received anointing, not only for himself that he might carry out the office of teaching, but for his whole body that the power of the Spirit might be present in the continuing preaching of the gospel.” He further adds, “. . . the Holy Spirit is the bond by which Christ effectually unites us to himself.” When Calvin discusses the titles of the Holy Spirit in Scripture each of the titles are closely related to God’s activity in the work of salvation and sanctification: the Spirit “. . . is called the ‘spirit of adoption’ because he is the witness to us of the free benevolence of God . . . . he is called ‘the guarantee and seal’ of our inheritance [II Cor 1:22; cf. Eph.1:14] . . . he so gives life to us . . . as to assure us that our salvation is safe in God’s unfailing care. He is also called ‘life’ because of righteousness [cf. Rom. 8:10].” Further, the term “water” [Is 55:1] for the Spirit conveys the idea of bringing fruitfulness and also purification [Isa. 44:3; John 7:37; Ez 36:25]; the words “oil” and “anointing” [I John 2:20,27] for the Spirit point to His activity of restoration and revival; the idea of “fire” [Luke 3:16] shows burning away the dross in believers’ lives and infusing in them an intense love for God; and finally He is called a “spring” [John 4:14] from which the believers received spiritual blessings, or the “hand of God” [Acts 11:21] with which he shows His power. The great increase in Pentecostal and charismatic churches should not deter Reformed churches from re-reaffirming the truths of the work of the Holy Spirit in bringing life through the spoken Word, considering His activity in the history of the Church, and being bold to preach Christ in the power of the Spirit.
Reformed Missions in Retrospect
Early Missionary Activity
It is generally assumed that the sixteenth century Reformers had little interest in missions because of their belief that the Apostles had already evangelized the world. This is only partially true for several reasons: First, when one considers missions strictly in contemporary terms: a sending church, missionaries, an unreached mission field, funding, etc., perhaps this thesis can be accepted. However, when missions are viewed as the preaching of the true gospel of salvation through faith in Jesus Christ, all the Reformers can be termed as missionaries. The rediscovery of the gospel led to its propagation.
The Reformers, especially Luther, Zwingli, and Calvin, preached, expounded, and published the doctrines of justification by faith. Second, the Reformation spread throughout Roman Catholic territories where the rulers were favourable to reform and renewal. The reasons for this desire were not always altruistic, as in the case of Henry VIII. Nevertheless, the true gospel spread far and wide in the providence of God, especially so in England which experienced widespread reform of the Anglican Church, especially under Archbishop Thomas Cranmer. Third, as the Reformation became firmly entrenched in Europe and several Protestant countries became maritime powers, there was a consciousness that the gospel needed to preached in distant lands. Fourth, the sixteenth Reformation was an ongoing event. There was no instant reform of several centuries of accumulated biblical errors. Thus, even the observation that the Reformers did not have a clear understanding or emphasis on missions and that it was actually Adrian Saravia (1531-1613), who addressed the issue in the late sixteenth century, is an indication of the reforming process that extended over a period of time. However, of the Reformers Calvin can be singled out as the one whose Reformed convictions resulted in an unmatched missionary involvement.
Calvin’s Geneva was, according to the Scottish Reformer John Knox, “the most perfect school of Christ that ever was in the earth since the days of the Apostles.” Here Calvin fulfilled his newfound mission to reform the Genevan church and engage in several activities of a missional nature, which included corresponding with outsiders for the cause of the Reformation. Another contribution of Calvin was setting up a model church in Geneva on his return from exile. Commenting of this Kingdon writes that Calvin, “. . . created there a reformed church which proved to be a model for protestants (sic.) in much of Europe and America.”
The crowing achievement of Calvin was the founding of the Academy which eventually became the University of Geneva. The Academy combined high scholarship built on Christian principles and provided the church in Europe with competent ministers of the Word. The Genevan Church provided pastors for the evangelization of Europe and beyond. The Register of pastors in Geneva, begun only in 1546, despite being incomplete, gives a glimpse of the Genevan church and its involvement in spreading the gospel. Names of missionaries sent from Geneva were often left out to ensure their safety; in the year 1561, although the sending of only twelve men have been recorded in actual fact 142 men had gone out for missionary work. Perhaps a little known fact is that Calvin sent a colony to Rio de Janeiro in 1555 with the hopes of establishing a Huguenot colony. Unfortunately, this expedition ended abruptly and failed to accomplish its goal. Despite failure of this ‘mission,’ there is overwhelming evidence of Calvin’s total involvement in the task of biblically oriented missions.
As Protestant nations, like Holland and England, became maritime powers they impacted world evangelization. Especially active from a Reformed perspective were the Dutch, whose whose efforts were spurred by Hugo Grotius’ (1583-1645) work “an outline of the Christian faith, De Veritate Religionis Christianae (1627) for the use of Dutch sailors travelling to the Far East,” seemingly to assist them to share the gospel. Moreover, due to pressure of the Churches in Holland, the Dutch East India Company established a seminary in Leyden, that trained twelve ministers between 1622 and 1633 for work in the Dutch colonies of Indonesia and Ceylon (Sri Lanka). Because of certain incentives given to the clergy there was rapid church growth in Java and Ambon. In America, the Massachusetts Bay Colony charter included a missionary goal to spread the gospel among the natives. This work was carried out by the Presbyterian John Eliot (1604-1690) who worked faithfully among the native Indians. Another of the reformed family who carried on the work among Indians was the Congregationalist David Brainerd (1718-1747). Among other Protestant nations that actively pursued missions was the thoroughly ecumenical Tranquebar mission (1706) in south India, commissioned by King Frederick IV of Denmark, a Lutheran, with missionaries (Bartholomew Ziegenbalg and Henry Pleutshau) from a Pietistic German Lutheran background, and financially assisted later by the (Anglican) Society for the Propagation of Christian Knowledge (SPCK).
Colonial missions, supported by Protestant nations, made way for the setting up of mission boards and the great expansion of missionary activity in the nineteenth century. Among those of the Reformed persuasion that made a significant impact were, the Baptist Missionary Society (1792) the (Congregational) London Missionary Society (1795) and the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (1810); church-related mission boards were the (American) Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions (1937), the Board of the (Dutch) Reformed Church of America (1857), and the Church of Scotland, the Free Church of Scotland Mission, and the (Scottish) United Presbyterian Mission. It is an interesting fact that these missionary societies did not merely engage in evangelism per se; they were involved in holistic mission.
When the church has truly understood the mandate of Christ, it has tried to incorporate into its missionary task the call of Christ ‘to preach good news to the poor . . . to proclaim freedom for the prisoners and recovery of sight for the blind, to release the oppressed, to proclaim the year of the Lord’s favour.’ (Luke 4: 18, 19) In the early church the Apostle Paul carried help to the Jerusalem church at the time of its need, and James writes of the need for good works. (Acts 11:28-30; James 1:27) This emphasis on social action and humanitarian assistance (both to those within the church and those outside) has marked modern Reformed missionary effort and has often resulted in a qualitative expansion of the church. However, evangelicals, who had always seen no dichotomy between good works and the gospel, distanced themselves from social action with the advent of the social gospel, in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, that tried to establish the Kingdom of God through the transformation of society. Early efforts of missionary pioneers, especially in the Reformed tradition, need to be explored to appreciate this often forgotten facet of the gospel. A brief account of the ministries of William Carey, Alexander Duff, and the famous medical-missionary explorer, David Livingston are worth noting.
Perhaps the most outstanding missionary-statesman in modern church history is William Carey (1761-1834). Carey arrived in India in 1793, and served continuously, primarily in the Calcutta area, until his death in 1834. The Serampore Trio, comprised of Carey, Joshua Marshman (1768-1837), and William Ward (1764-1823), made a tremendous contribution to modern missions in diverse areas such as modelling self support, encouraging Bible translation, evangelizing, motivating indigenous church planting, involving in social uplift, pioneering Christian higher education, etc. Carey was an outstanding example of a truly Reformed Christian who saw all of life as under the Lordship of Christ. His far ranging interests, his passionate zeal for the propagation of the gospel, and his ecumenical spirit reveal that his primary focus was lifting up Christ.
Alexander Duff (1806-1878) of the Church of Scotland came to India (1830) with a unique mission proposal: to educate in order to evangelize. Duff’s idea was disapproved by all the missionaries he consulted with except one – Carey. Encouraged by Carey, Duff established the General Assembly’s Institution in Calcutta with five boys and instruction in two streams: English and Bengali. The training of the students was so thorough that at the year-end public viva voce their knowledge of general subjects as well as Christianity and the Bible impressed the audience greatly. The introduction of Western learning to these young minds resulted in a search that culminated in some of them becoming Christians. Though Duff’s converts were not a large number, they formed the backbone of the leadership of the Anglican and Presbyterian churches in the nineteenth century. Duff’s example was followed by numerous other Presbyterian and Reformed missionaries who founded schools and colleges in British India. Duff’s appeals for the cause of education in India met with favorable response in Scotland. This significant contribution to nation building in India is seldom fully appreciated, but nevertheless stands as an undeniable fact. The aim of Duff and those missionaries that followed his example – to use English education as a means to evangelize – was abandoned in the nineteenth century itself.
The third example is of the famous medical-missionary explorer David Livingstone (1813-1873). Livingstone, from “a hardy clan of Scotsmen, reared in poverty and godliness,” arrived in Africa in 1841. He was the fourth of a line of great LMS missionaries: John Theodore Vanderkemp, John Philip, and Robert Moffat (1795-1883), Livingstone’s father-in-law. Livingstone has been criticized for his remark at the University of Cambridge (1857), “I go back to Africa to try to make an open path for commerce and Christianity.” Neill, however, explains that Livingstone’s remark has been misunderstood since the context in which he was addressing his audience was one in which there loomed the reality of the slave trade, that Livingstone wanted abolished. David Livingstone is remembered more as an explorer rather than a missionary. His path breaking travels opened up a large segment of the African continent that was hitherto unexplored. Although one detects a transition from Livingstone the missionary to Livingstone the explorer, it seems that he never lost his love for the African people. The abolition of slave trade in Africa was foremost on his mind. He was disgusted with the attitude of the Boers and the Portuguese in this regard. It is well observed, “His discoveries – geographic, technical, medical, and social – provided a complex body of knowledge that is still being explored. . . . Livingstone wholeheartedly believed in the African’s ability to advance into the modern world. He was, in this sense, a forerunner not only of European imperialism in Africa but also of African nationalism.” This is a secular evaluation of Livingstone, but how should he be evaluated from a missionary perspective? Carey, Duff, and Livingstone, three missionaries representing the Reformed tradition, need to be understood from the nineteenth century perspective.
The nineteenth century, also known as the great century of Christian missions, was a period of colonial consolidation. The missionaries took advantage of this general opportunity and, to different degrees determined by their individual circumstances, exploited the privileges that colonialism offered. However, the early period of British colonialism, at least in India, was not favorable for missionary work. The British East India Company (BEIC), as a colonial power, was slow to encourage spiritual uplift of their subjects in India, because it feared that this concern might hinder its trade prospects. Because the religious policy of the BEIC did not encourage meddling in India’s religions, the missionaries were not generally welcome up to the early nineteenth century, but there were exemptions. For example, Carey was allowed to enter India because of some evangelical East India officials in 1793. However, when new missionaries arrived in 1799 in Calcutta, they were ordered out of the Company territories. Fortunately, the Governor of a nearby Danish colony invited Carey and his colleagues to work from their territory of Serampore. Missions in India gradually began to grow with the easing of Company restrictions on missionary work in the revision of the Company charter in 1813, and again in 1833. In India, both Carey and Duff saw a shift in the policies of the BEIC during this period and witnessed the beginnings of growing Protestant activity. 1833 marked the arrival of several missions from various Christian nations and the setting up of the Anglican ecclesiastical establishment. Following the Mutiny (1857) and the Company making way for the Crown (1858), India experienced more overt Christian activity in the British held territories. In Africa, the medical missionary turned explorer Livingstone’s discoveries supported the prospect of increased imperial expansion. Divested of the results of their interesting ‘ministries’ these three missionaries represent the Reformed ideal of seeing missions as more than mere spiritual transformation and church planting; missions, for them, whether they realized it or not, included a holistic call to witness to the gospel by both words and actions.
The twentieth century was a period of transition for the church. The first signs of some changes appeared in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries in the mission fields. As mission expansion began it also brought an awareness of the need for unity in the mission fields. This was nowhere more felt than at the World Missionary Conference in Edinburgh (1910) that marked a milestone in the journey of missionary cooperation, as also the first steps towards the establishment of an ecumenical identity. The conference also marked a plea from the younger churches for visible partnership in missions. Bishop V. S. Azariah is remembered for his speech in which he appealed that missionaries should work shoulder to shoulder with nationals.
The twentieth century also marked the gradual disappearance of colonialismof colonialism and making way for the rise of nationalism and independence in many countries. This transition impacted the church in different degrees. The nineteenth century examples of missionaries such as Carey and Livingstone, who threw themselves into the fight for justice even though it meant clashing with the colonial powers, form a backdrop for missionaries in the twentieth century. Despite positive contributions by these, and other, missionaries to the welfare of the people, they did not count greatly in the ferment of nationalism.
In India, it seems that the local populace saw the relationship between Christianity and the Western powers negatively. The Sepoy Mutiny of 1857, otherwise known as ‘India’s First War of Independence,’ reveals the close association of Christianity in India and the BEIC. Such was the strong sense of nationalism that it even affected converts to Christianity. In one case patriotism went to such an extent that the person who was baptized in the Anglican Church soon became a Roman Catholic. Nationalistic politicians such as Gandhi capitalized on this relationship between the British and Christianity by using Christian ideals, such as those expressed in the Sermon on the Mount, as supporting his view of ‘ahimsa’ (non-violence), to lead the non-violent struggle leading to Indian independence.
The end of the twentieth century marked a transition from nationalism and independence to the revival of religious fundamentalism and persecution in countries where Christians are a small minority. In some parts of the Moslem world this has found expression in the activities of the Taliban, and, in India Hindu religious fundamentalism is actively opposed to Islam and Christianity. Interestingly, Indian Christians, particularly in areas where they are very few in number, find themselves in a situation like that of Christians in the Roman Empire and Persia where political developments had a direct effect on their religious freedom.
Contemporary Global Missionary Challenges
The Church today needs to recognize and address some of the current global missionary challenges. To accomplish this it is important for the Church, as a whole, to be involved in its missionary calling. There needs to be recognition that every believer has a missionary mandate that ought to be fulfilled. The pastor is entrusted the responsibility to preach the Word addressing contemporary issues; the people are called to respond, whether as individuals or as a community, to the call. For a convenient classification contemporary global issues that challenge the church may be listed as: Political Issues, Economic and Related Issues, Ecological Issues, and Socio-Ethical Issues. These issues are in some ways related to one another. Impacting one affects another. It is imperative that the church identify the most important and relevant of these issues and focus its attention on them.
Political Issues. Contemporary political issues include the issue of nationalism. This assumes different forms in post colonial or post independence societies. In post colonial societies which are anti-Christian, the unfortunate experiences of the colonial era are kept alive in media to fuel a feeling of nationalism. This is especially true in India where Christians are accused of having adopted a foreign religion. Much of the opposition comes from Hindu fundamentalists who see Christianity and its gospel propagation as part of a Western agenda to influence India, especially its youth, to forget its culture.
Post-colonial nationalism is dangerous in that the state machinery is either afraid to resist the fundamentalist forces for fear of reprisal, or quietly connives in the atrocities. In many developing nations the question of identity too is important. How does one show that being a Christian does not necessary mean being unpatriotic? In some contexts terrorism and insurgency play a role in the fight for political recognition and freedom.
Economic and Related Issues. The most recent and far-reaching economic tumble in recent years has been the financial meltdown, the end of which is still out of sight. This has affected all segments of society globally. Also related is the issue of production and distribution of food. Rising costs have made basic necessities beyond the reach of poor families; this is especially true in countries that face insurgency and terrorism. The reality of poverty and, concurrently, the alarming growth of difference between the rich and the poor in some nations are a matter of grave concern. This poses an immediate and ongoing challenge for the church. Also closely related is AIDS and its impact mostly on the poor and illiterate.
Ecological Issues Global warming ranks as the top environmental issue today. Can this be addressed missiologically? This is an impending danger that is not so obvious. There is a need to educate people about the hazards of this impending crisis. In developing countries the erection of new buildings involves deforestation. Another present danger is rising pollution levels, especially in cities. Large tracts of forest land are systematically destroyed to make way for development. The same happens when dams are constructed leading to widespread ecological damage. There is a need to create public awareness. Another area that needs to be addressed is relief and rehabilitation of people who are victims of natural catastrophes such tsunamis, floods, drought, famine etc. All these crises call for the response of the church. Some current theological curricula do include ecological issues within the scope of their studies; however, is there enough practical exposure? What is the role of Christians in helping to alleviate these problems? Does it matter at all – or do we simply need to ignore the issue – since anyway the world is going to be destroyed by fire?
Socio-Ethical Issues Among these are abortion, euthanasia, homosexuality and related issues such as same-sex marriage, pornography, cloning, etc. The existing issues of alcoholism and substance abuse continue to pose an ongoing challenge. Globalization is threatening developing countries with strong religious and cultural foundations they appear to threaten the socio-cultural fabric of the society. This has been the case in India where progress has fused with lifestyle changes, especially in urban youth and working women, that has fuelled an ongoing war of words and more. Also to be noted is that in some developing countries outsourcing has created a subculture among young people whose comparatively competitive salaries and strange working hours together pose the question of whether traditional values are subordinate and conditioned by economic development.
The above is only a random sampling of the issues that need to be addressed in the contemporary world. Our final section will explore the manner in which the church can address these issues.
The Recovery of Reformed Missions
Mission and the Kingdom of God There is some confusion as to missions and its relation to the Kingdom of God. Some liberal interpretations speak of establishing the Kingdom of God on earth. This is not possible because of the effects of the Fall, but how do we explain the preaching of the Kingdom of God in the New Testament? In the synoptics we find that the preaching of Jesus announced the coming of the Kingdom. (Mark 1:14, 15; Luke 9:11) It was seen as both already and imminent, now and not yet. (Luke 11:20; 17:20,21) Yet to take the life, ministry, death, and resurrection of Christ as constituting the Kingdom is incorrect. It is not enough to simply do the things that Jesus did; those things in themselves do not usher in the Kingdom. The Kingdom of God comes about through the transformation of lives that have responded to the gospel and the result of that change that impacts individuals, peoples, societies, cultures, and nations. The gospels refer to Jesus preaching the Kingdom of God or the Kingdom of Heaven. However, in the Acts of the Apostles there is indication of the close connection between the Kingdom and the work of Our Lord. (Acts 8:12) We find that in the Acts the proclamation of the gospel moves from the Kingdom to the King himself. Missions that aim at merely establishing an earthly reign of righteousness without recognizing the lordship of the King are seriously flawed. Similarly, any discussion of missions simply as establishing a kingdom falls short of the biblical demand of the message of our proclamation. In the history of missions the tension between the understanding of missions as proclamation of the gospel message of salvation through Christ, and the role dof engaging in social action and good works in Christ’s name has been an ongoing discussion. The Church should, in the words of our Lord, ‘practice the latter without leaving the former undone’ (Luke 11:42). Proclamation of eternal life through Jesus Christ is essentially the missionary message; good works follow as a result of the transformation of lives. Good works in themselves do not constitute the gospel message, but they are evidence that the gospel has taken root in the lives of people.
Mission and the Uniqueness of Christ Every missionary context has always been pluralistic. The reality of pluralism has become more evident in the contemporary context with a related question of the uniqueness of Jesus Christ. It has already been mentioned above our message should be Christ-centred. It is when Christian believers incarnate the life of Christ that the message comes into sharper focus. Christ becomes the ultimate Model for the Christian. As He is the beginning and end of all things, He is also the beginning and end of the missionary quest. In Him is life found, sustained, and fulfilled. Preaching a social gospel, or a gospel of good works, or a gospel of liberation is not the missionary message: the message is about redemption and transformation in Christ. Today, the Lord asks the Church what He asked His disciples at Caesarea Philippi: ‘Who do you say that I am?’ (Mark 8:29) One-sided ideas of Jesus as the Great Teacher, the Liberator of the masses, the Healer, etc., are only aberrations of the truth that Jesus Christ is Redeemer and Lord. The Church needs to re-affirm the uniqueness and finality of Christ, and when it does, its missionary task will once more be focussed.
Mission and the Messengers The responsibility of propagating the gospel falls primarily on the office of the elder. Teaching elders carry an awesome responsibility. They need to preach the gospel in the church and also challenge their people to engage in the missionary task. Jonathan Edwards acknowledged the work of missions in his writings, especially in his call to prayer and also in his ‘History of Redemption.’ Moreover, Edwards set an example by himself becoming a missionary to the Indians. In England, a great example in this regard in the eighteenth century was Charles Simeon of Cambridge. Simeon exercised a powerful ministry of preaching that led to many young men responding to the missionary call; outstanding among these was Anglican chaplain Henry Martyn, who in a short missionary career of eight years translated the New Testament into Urdu, revised the Persian, and was revising the Arabic at the time of his death (1813). Understanding the importance of evangelising came slowly in the post-Reformation era, but when it did it resulted in a growing interest in the cause of missions. The ministry of the Word needs to be revived so that individuals are transformed, communities are challenged, and the call to missions is heard.
Mission and the Church The doctrine of the church and its relationship to mission needs to be stressed. Mission bodies need to be church based rather than independent. The biblical model of evangelism begins with the church and culminates in the founding of churches. J. H. Bavink has conveyed it succinctly:
"Missions is that activity of the church – in essence it is nothing else than an activity of Christ, exercised through the church – through which the church, in this interim period, in which the end is postponed, calls the peoples of the earth to repentance and to faith in Christ, so that they may be made his disciples and through baptism be incorporated into the fellowship of those who await the coming of his kingdom."
Missions that function without any essential dependence upon the church may find themselves continuing a form of missionary work that is not church centred. Rolland Allen’s comment that the New Testament church established churches whereas the contemporary church establishes missions is relevant even today. Allen probably foresaw the problems that accompany founding ‘missions’. In India this has been an acute problem with a phenomenon that developed with Christian missions: ‘mission-compound Christians.’
Closely related with this idea is the role of the established missionary church. Is the missionary church to be modelled after the sending mission, or should it have its own indigenous and biblical identity? One who believed strongly that a national church must have an indigenous identity was Rufus Anderson, Secretary of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (ABCFM). Anderson opposed ideas of ‘civilizing’ the nationals before converting them. He stopped the establishment of missionary schools and any activity that was outside the realm of pure gospel proclamation. Perhaps Anderson discerned patterns of dependence that would cripple the growth of national churches.
The preservation of the indigenous identity of national churches has resulted in some measure of success in certain countries. Especially noteworthy is the experiment of John Nevius, American Presbyterian missionary to Korea in the late nineteenth century whose suggestion for mission policies was adopted by the American Presbyterian mission in Korea. This early decision led to the Korean church becoming a model of self-support and growth. Churches need to constantly evaluate and apply Biblical principles to changing situations.
Conclusion: Reformed theology, especially the doctrine of the sovereignty of God, and missions are inseparable. Historically, mission seems to have been largely conditioned by the prevailing notions about the power of the Church. Up to the time of the Reformation the Church seemed to have unlimited powers to meddle in the affairs of the world: to negotiate with barbarians, to humble emperors, to silence dissident voices, to decide where Portugal and Spain should colonize, and to hold sway over the souls of men.
Since the Reformation it appears that the Church, assisted by Protestant colonial powers, continued to have a great influence worldwide. Protestant missionary expansion, beginning in the eighteenth century and reaching its climax in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, has led to a greater understanding of the mission of the Church. The great expansion of Christian missions has coincided with political changes in the world that have resulted in nationalism and independence of countries that were part of the colonial establishment.
The Church now is more conscious of its identity as a spiritual entity with a biblical mandate to preach the gospel. Moreover, fast growing changes and concerns have brought about new challenges to be addressed. The task before the Church is both challenging and intimidating, and it sometimes appears that what the Church has to offer is very small. These factors were the same in the beginning too. The small band of Christ’s disciples was no match for the might of the Roman Empire and the brutality of the barbarians. And yet, the Church conquered because it had the message of the gospel of salvation in Jesus Christ: of love, liberation, and transformation. It advanced in the power of the Holy Spirit to conquer individuals and families, peoples and nations to become today the greatest living faith. The challenges are numerous today; the spiritual resources are the same as were available to the Apostles at Pentecost. Can the Church again wake up to its call to be witnesses of the gospel of Jesus Christ?
 
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